Table 2 Ciliary presence in different cancer types

Bladder cancer

Urothelial cells; urothelial carcinoma (UC) cell lines

X

Cilia-associated HH signaling mediates the proliferation and survival of human urothelial carcinoma (UC) cell lines and is required for UC tumor growth in vivo

[58]

Brain tumor

Medulloblastomas

X

X*

Anaplastic* medulloblastomas have few or no ciliated cells; cilia are present in most desmoplastic medullablastoma but almost exclusively in tumors that have activation in either HH or WNT signaling

[59]

Breast cancer

Breast cancer cells; breast cancer cell lines

X**

X

Absence of primary cilia; loss of primary cilia in all non-proliferating human tumor cells; (decreased in amount)**

[151, 152**, 153]

Cancer stem cells

Medulloblastoma stem cells

X

CD15 + medulloblastoma cells lack primary cilia

[150]

Colon cancer

Colon epithelium cells

X

Decreased frequency of primary cilia in absence of TTLL3 linked to the development of human colorectal carcinomas

[154]

Lung cancer

Columnar epithelium; mucous columnar cells

X

X***

Loss of cilia by change from normal ciliated columnar epithelium to mucous columnar cell in cases of non-terminal respiratory unit type adenocarcinoma***

[155]

Skin cancer

Melanocytes

X****

X

Decreased amount of primary cilia in melanocytes****; loss of primary cilia in melanoma cell lines

[156]

Ovarian cancer

Epithelial ovarian cells

X

Reduced cilia frequency; deregulated Hh and platelet-derived growth factor receptor alpha (PDGFRα) signaling

[57]

Pancreatic cancer

Pancreatic ductal cells; pancreatic cancer cell lines

X

X

Primary cilia were identified in pancreatic cancer cell lines and in 25 of 100 pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) cases; the presence of primary cilia is significantly associated with the prognosis of PDAC

[157]

Prostate cancer

Prostatic epithelial cells

X

Reduced primary cilia frequency; tendency to shorter cilia

[158]

Renal cancer

Renal cells; renal tumor parenchyma

X

Strongly reduced cilia frequency; the reduction in clear cell renal cell carcinomas (ccRCC) is significantly stronger than in papillary renal cell carcinomas (pRCC)

[159–161]